A proposed stratification system to address the heterogeneity of Subdural Hematoma Outcome reporting in the literature.

A major challenge within the academic literature on SDHs has been inconsistent outcomes reported across studies. Historically, patients have been categorized by the blood-product age identified on imaging (i.e., acute, subacute, or chronic). However, this schematic has likely played a central role in producing the heterogeneity encountered in the literature. In this investigation, a total of 494 patients that underwent SDH evacuation at a tertiary medical center between November 2013-December 2021 were retrospectively identified. Mechanism of injury was reviewed by the authors and categorized as either positive or negative for a high-velocity impact (HVI) injury. Any head strike injury leading to the formation of a SDH while traveling at a velocity beyond that of normal locomotion or daily activities was categorized as an HVI. Patients were subsequently stratified by those with an acute SDHs after a high-velocity impact (aSDHHVI), those with an acute SDH without a high-velocity impact injury (aSDHWO), and those with any combination of subacute or chronic blood products (mixed-SDH [mSDH]). Nine percent (n = 44) of patients experienced an aSDHHVI, 23% (n = 113) aSDHWO, and 68% (n = 337) mSDH. Between these groups, highly distinct patient populations were identified using several metrics for comparison. Most notably, aSDHHVI had a significantly worse neurological status at discharge (50% vs. 23% aSDHWO vs. 8% mSDH; p < 0.001) and mortality (25% vs. 8% aSDHWO vs. 4% mSDH; p < 0.001). Controlling for gender, midline shift (mm), and anticoagulation use in the acute SDH population, multivariable logistic regression revealed a 6.85x odds ratio (p < 0.001) for poor outcomes in those with a positive history for a high-velocity impact injury. As such, the distribution of patients that suffer an HVI related acute SDH versus those that do not can significantly affect the outcomes reported. Adoption of this stratification system will help address the heterogeneity of SDH reporting in the literature while still closely aligning with conventional reporting.

How artificial intelligence can provide information about subdural hematoma: Assessment of readability, reliability, and quality of ChatGPT, BARD, and perplexity responses.

Subdural hematoma is defined as blood collection in the subdural space between the dura mater and arachnoid. Subdural hematoma is a condition that neurosurgeons frequently encounter and has acute, subacute and chronic forms. The incidence in adults is reported to be 1.72-20.60/100.000 people annually. Our study aimed to evaluate the quality, reliability and readability of the answers to questions asked to ChatGPT, Bard, and perplexity about "Subdural Hematoma." In this observational and cross-sectional study, we asked ChatGPT, Bard, and perplexity to provide the 100 most frequently asked questions about "Subdural Hematoma" separately. Responses from both chatbots were analyzed separately for readability, quality, reliability and adequacy. When the median readability scores of ChatGPT, Bard, and perplexity answers were compared with the sixth-grade reading level, a statistically significant difference was observed in all formulas (P < .001). All 3 chatbot responses were found to be difficult to read. Bard responses were more readable than ChatGPT's (P < .001) and perplexity's (P < .001) responses for all scores evaluated. Although there were differences between the results of the evaluated calculators, perplexity's answers were determined to be more readable than ChatGPT's answers (P < .05). Bard answers were determined to have the best GQS scores (P < .001). Perplexity responses had the best Journal of American Medical Association and modified DISCERN scores (P < .001). ChatGPT, Bard, and perplexity's current capabilities are inadequate in terms of quality and readability of "Subdural Hematoma" related text content. The readability standard for patient education materials as determined by the American Medical Association, National Institutes of Health, and the United States Department of Health and Human Services is at or below grade 6. The readability levels of the responses of artificial intelligence applications such as ChatGPT, Bard, and perplexity are significantly higher than the recommended 6th grade level.

Association between Lipid-Lowering Drugs and Traumatic Subdural Hemorrhage: A Mendelian Randomization Study.

BACKGROUND: There are current clinical observations that atorvastatin may promote subdural hematoma resorption. We aimed to assess the causal effects of lipid-lowering agents 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) inhibitors, Proproteinconvertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors and Niemann-Pick C1-like protein 1 (NPC1L1) inhibitors on traumatic subdural hematomas. METHODS: We used genetic instruments to proxy lipid-lowering drug exposure, with genetic instruments being genetic variants within or near low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol)-associated drug target genes. These were analyzed by using a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study. RESULTS: A causal relationship was found between HMGCR inhibitors and traumatic subdural hematoma (Inverse variance weighted (ß = -0.7593341 (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.4679779), p = 0.008366947 < 0.05)). However, no causal relationship was found between PCSK9 inhibitors and NPC1L1 inhibitors and traumatic subdural hematoma (PCSK9 inhibitors: Inverse variance weighted (ß = 0.23897796 (OR = 1.2699505), p = 0.1126327), NPC1L1 inhibitors: Inverse variance weighted (ß = -0.02118558 (OR = 0.9790373), p = 0.9701686)). Sensitivity analysis of the data revealed good stability of the results. CONCLUSIONS: This two-sample MR study suggests a potential causal relationship between HMGCR inhibition (atorvastatin) and traumatic subdural hemorrhage.

Imaging predictors of hemorrhagic progression of a contusion after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The hemorrhagic progression of a contusion (HPC) after Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the important causes of death in trauma patients. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the predictive effect of imaging features of Computed tomography (CT) on HPC after TBI. A comprehensive systematic search was performed using PubMed, EMBASE, and WEB OF SCIENCE databases to identify all relevant literature. A total of 8 studies involving 2543 patients were included in this meta-analysis. Meta-analysis showed that subarachnoid hemorrhage (OR 3.28; 95% CI 2.57-4.20), subdural hemorrhage (OR 4.35; 95% CI 3.29-5.75), epidural hemorrhage (OR 1.47;95% CI 1.15-1.89), contrast extravasation (OR 11.81; 95% CI 4.86-28.71) had a predictive effect on the occurrence of HPC. Skull fracture (OR 1.64; 95% CI 0.84-3.19) showed no statistical significance, and midline displacement > 5 mm (OR 4.66; 95% CI 1.87-11.62) showed high heterogeneity. The results of this meta-analysis showed that some imaging features were effective predictors of HPC after TBI. Well-designed prospective studies are needed to more accurately assess the effective predictors of HPC after TBI.

Spinal subdural haemorrhage secondary to strenuous exercise and warfarin, complicated by acute ischaemic stroke.

Spinal subdural haemorrhage or haematoma (SSDH) is a rare condition that is often overlooked and missed on initial presentation due to its non-specific features that may mimic other more common pathologies. It is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates, with few evidence-based management principles, particularly during the subacute stages of recovery. In this report, we detail a case of SSDH associated with exercise and anticoagulation therapy, which was complicated by acute ischaemic stroke. SSDH should be suspected in cases of acute back pain without a clear alternative cause, particularly in coagulopathic individuals. Following treatment, early recommencement of anticoagulation therapy may be justified in certain cases where indicated, after careful consideration of the affected individual's risk profile.

Surgical strategies in acute subdural hematoma: a meta-analysis of decompressive craniectomy vs. craniotomy.

OBJECTIVE: Acute subdural hematoma (ASDH) stands as a significant contributor to morbidity after severe traumatic brain injuries (TBI). The primary treatment approach for patients experiencing progressive neurological deficits or notable mass effects is the surgical removal of the hematoma, which can be achieved through craniotomy (CO) or decompressive craniectomy (DC). Nevertheless, the choice between these two procedures remains a subject of ongoing debate and controversy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a comprehensive literature review, utilizing prominent online databases and manually searching references related to craniotomy and craniectomy for subdural hematoma evacuation up to November 2023. Our analysis focused on outcome variables such as the presence of residual subdural hematoma, the need for revision procedures, and overall clinical outcomes. RESULTS: We included a total of 11 comparative studies in our analysis, encompassing 4269 patients, with 2979 undergoing craniotomy and 1290 undergoing craniectomy, meeting the inclusion criteria. Patients who underwent craniectomy displayed significantly lower scores on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) during their initial presentation. Following surgery, the DC group exhibited a significantly reduced rate of residual subdural (P = 0.009). Additionally, the likelihood of a poor outcome during follow-up was lower in the CO group. Likewise, the mortality rate was lower in the CO group compared to the craniectomy group (OR 0.63, 95% CI 0.41-0.98, I2 = 84%, P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Our study found that CO was associated with more favorable outcomes in terms of mortality, reoperation rate, and functional outcome while DC was associated with less likelihood of residual subdural hematoma. Upon further investigation of patient characteristics who underwent into either of these interventions, it was very clear that patients in DC cohort have more serious and low pre-op characteristics than the CO group. Nonetheless, brain herniation and advanced age act as independent factor for predicting the outcome irrespective of the intervention.

The use of Microsurgical Exploration of the External Carotid Artery for Removal of a Retained Microcatheter After Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization Using Live Fluoroscopy: A Technical Note.

BACKGROUND: Fragmentation, disconnection, or entrapment of an in-use microcatheter during neuro-endovascular procedures is a known risk. Often a benign entity, retained catheters are not infrequently observed, but severe complications including thrombus, thromboembolic events, pseudoaneurysm, and limb ischemia have been described, necessitating retrieval. This technical case report demonstrates the safe use of an external carotid artery (ECA) approach for ligation and removal of a retained microcatheter after middle meningeal artery (MMA) embolization. This article also demonstrates the use of live intraoperative fluoroscopy as a surgical adjunct to ensure that the catheter is fully removed without any injury, shearing, or breakage during removal. METHODS: A 66-year-old male patient presented with bilateral subdural hematomas to an outside hospital. He subsequently underwent evacuation of the hematomas followed by a right-sided MMA embolization, complicated by Onyx (Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN) entrapment of the microcatheter in the MMA. The patient was asymptomatic, but there was significant concern about continuing antiplatelet/anticoagulation therapy in the presence of the subdural hematoma. We proceeded with an open surgical approach for catheter retrieval. As the catheter was withdrawn, intraoperative fluoroscopy demonstrated complete removal without any retained fragments. RESULTS: The patient recovered without event and was discharged on postoperative day 1. On follow-up the patient continued to do well without any complications from the fragment that remained in the external carotid circulation. CONCLUSIONS: This case and accompanying video demonstrates the effective use of open ECA surgical approach to retrieve the retained microcatheter after an MMA embolization. This approach allowed for safe and effective removal of the microcatheter while significantly reducing complication risks.

Spontaneous intracranial hypotension presenting with bilateral subdural hematoma: Decision-making and treatment strategies.

BACKGROUND: The timing and decision to drain subdural hematoma (SDH) in spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) remains a dilemma. We reviewed our experience of bilateral SDH secondary to SIH, focusing on decision making and treatment strategies. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed bilateral SDH secondary to SIH between March 2010 and September 2021. Baseline characteristics of patients, diagnosis, radiologic findings, treatments, and clinical outcome were investigated. RESULTS: Fifteen patients (7 men, 8 women) with bilateral SDH secondary to SIH were included in this study. Initially, patients were treated conservatively (4 patients, 26.7 %), with an epidural blood patch (EBP, 3 patients, 20.0 %), and SDH drainage followed by the Trendelenburg position (8 patients, 53.3 %). All 3 patients that were initially treated with EBP required SDH drainage. Of the 8 patients initially treated with SDH drainage via burr hole followed by Trendelenburg position, 7 patients showed sustained improvements without EBP; however, 1 patient needed EBP. Deterioration to coma occurred in 6 out of 15 patients (40.0 %). All 6 deteriorated patients immediately recovered after SDH drainage with Trendelenburg position; 5 achieved sustained improvement without EBP and 1 required EBP. During the follow-up period, 14 out of 15 patients (93.3 %) showed good recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Evacuation of SDH is not always necessary in SIH; however, we did not hesitate to perform hematoma drainage, in deteriorated patients or those with thick hematoma that is associated with significant sagging and cistern effacement. This can prevent irreversible neurologic complications. Moreover, the Trendelenburg position may help to achieve sustained improvement without additional treatment.

[Finite-element simulation of ethanol diffusion in nonencapsulated subdural hematomas]. / Konechno-elementnoe modelirovanie diffuzii etanola v neinkapsulirovannykh subdural'nykh gematomakh.

OBJECTIVE: Determination of the diffusion regularities of ethanol in nonencapsulated subdural hematomas. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The finite-element modelling of the ethanol's concentration field for the non-lethal nonencapsulated subdural hematoma using the ELCUT 6.5 application was carried out. RESULTS: A two-dimensional finite-element concentration field model of a low volume subdural hematoma, taking into account the different boundary conditions of ethanol diffusion, has been developed. It has been proven that the diffusion rate of ethanol is determined by the impact of its initial concentration field, the level of ethanolemia, the geometry of hematoma, as well as the diffusion properties of bounding with hematoma tissues. The possibility of ethanol diffusion in the content of a nonalcoholic hematoma from bounding tissues was shown. The central region of hematoma has been found to have the highest ethanol concentration stability. If the diffusion's boundary conditions are not identical, the indicated area shifts to the surface of hematoma with a lower density of diffusion's flow. CONCLUSION: It is recommended to interpret the postmortem concentration of ethanol in the most diffusion-resistant region of hematoma as the minimum limit of ethanolemia during the hematoma formation.

Inactivation of ERK1/2 signaling mediates dysfunction of basal meningeal lymphatic vessels in experimental subdural hematoma.

Rationale: Meningeal lymphatic vessels (MLVs) are essential for the clearance of subdural hematoma (SDH). However, SDH impairs their drainage function, and the pathogenesis remains unclear. Herein, we aimed to understand the pathological mechanisms of MLV dysfunction following SDH and to test whether atorvastatin, an effective drug for SDH clearance, improves meningeal lymphatic drainage (MLD). Methods: We induced SDH models in rats by injecting autologous blood into the subdural space and evaluated MLD using Gadopentetate D, Evans blue, and CFSE-labeled erythrocytes. Whole-mount immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy were utilized to detect the morphology of MLVs. Phosphoproteomics, western blot, flow cytometry, and in vitro experiments were performed to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying dysfunctional MLVs. Results: The basal MLVs were detected to have abundant valves and play an important role in draining subdural substances. Following SDH, these basal MLVs exhibited disrupted endothelial junctions and dilated lumen, leading to impaired MLD. Subsequent proteomics analysis of the meninges detected numerous dephosphorylated proteins, primarily enriched in the adherens junction, including significant dephosphorylation of ERK1/2 within the meningeal lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). Subdural injection of the ERK1/2 kinase inhibitor PD98059 resulted in dilated basal MLVs and impaired MLD, resembling the dysfunctional MLVs observed in SDH. Moreover, inhibiting ERK1/2 signaling severely disrupted intercellular junctions between cultured LECs. Finally, atorvastatin was revealed to protect the structure of basal MLVs and accelerate MLD following SDH. However, these beneficial effects of atorvastatin were abolished when combined with PD98059. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate that SDH induces ERK1/2 dephosphorylation in meningeal LECs, leading to disrupted basal MLVs and impaired MLD. Additionally, we reveal a beneficial effect of atorvastatin in improving MLD.

Teaching Video NeuroImage: Status Epilepticus Manifesting as Belly Dancing Secondary to Subdural Hematoma.

A 74-year-old man developed involuntary rhythmic contractions of his left abdomen, after drainage of a chronic right frontoparietal subdural hematoma (Figure). These movements had electroencephalographic correlation with periodic lateralized discharges over the right posterior quadrant (Video 1, Figure) and were classified as clonic abdominal seizures. Clonic abdominal seizures are a rare clinical finding in patients with seizure disorders. The symptomatogenic zone most commonly localizes to the contralateral paracentral frontoparietal region.1 Possible etiologies include primary brain tumors, brain metastasis, CNS infections, cortical dysplasia, stroke, and postsurgical complications.1,2 Clonic abdominal seizures are infrequent, but should be suspected in patients with rhythmic and regular contractions of the hemiabdominal wall in the context of a contralateral cerebral structural lesion.

Subdural Hemorrhage as an Early Presentation in a Case of Sotos Syndrome.

Subdural hemorrhages (SDHs) in the pediatric population are associated with a high mortality and morbidity and may present in the context of abusive head trauma. Diagnostic investigations for such cases often include evaluation for rare genetic and metabolic disorders that can have associated SDH. Sotos syndrome is an overgrowth syndrome associated with macrocephaly and increased subarachnoid spaces and rarely with neurovascular complications. Here, we report two cases of Sotos syndrome, one with SDH during infancy who underwent repeated evaluation for suspected child abuse prior to the Sotos syndrome diagnosis and the other with enlarged extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid spaces, demonstrating a possible mechanism for SDH development in this setting. These cases suggest that some individuals with Sotos syndrome may be at elevated risk of developing SDH in infancy and that Sotos syndrome should be on the differential diagnosis during a medical genetics evaluation in cases of unexplained SDH, especially in the setting of macrocephaly.

Spontaneous epidural and subdural hematomas of the spine: Review of anatomy and imaging findings.

Spontaneous epidural (SEH) and subdural hematomas (SSH) of the spine are a rare cause of spinal injury and morbidity. They often present in the emergency setting, though magnetic resonance imaging is the gold-standard for diagnosis. Knowledge of anatomy, and in particular of the dural layers of the spine, is crucial to understand the location of SEH and SSH and their relationship with spinal structure. In this pictorial review, we aim to explain imaging features of the SEH and SSH, and to rule out their main differential diagnosis.

Precision of vacuum cup placement and its association with subgaleal hemorrhage and associated morbidity in term neonates.

PURPOSE: To evaluate whether the precision of vacuum cup placement is associated with failed vacuum extraction(VE), neonatal subgaleal hemorrhage(SGH) and other VE-related birth trauma. METHODS: All women with singleton term cephalic fetuses with attempted VE were recruited over a period of 30 months. Neonates were examined immediately after birth and the position of the chignon documented to decide whether the cup position was flexing median or suboptimal. Vigilant neonatal surveillance was performed to look for VE-related trauma, including subgaleal/subdural hemorrhages, skull fractures, scalp lacerations. CT scans of the brain were ordered liberally as clinically indicated. RESULTS: The VE rate was 5.89% in the study period. There were 17(4.9%) failures among 345 attempted VEs. Thirty babies suffered from subgaleal/subdural hemorrhages, skull fractures, scalp lacerations or a combination of these, giving an incidence of VE-related birth trauma of 8.7%. Suboptimal cup positions occurred in 31.6%. Logistic regression analysis showed that failed VE was associated with a non-occipital anterior fetal head position (OR 3.5, 95% CI 1.22-10.2), suboptimal vacuum cup placement (OR 4.13, 95% CI 1.38-12.2) and a longer duration of traction (OR 8.79, 95% CI 2.13-36.2); while, VE-related birth trauma was associated with failed VE (OR 3.93, 95% CI 1.08-14.3) and more pulls (OR 4.07, 95% CI 1.98-8.36). CONCLUSION: Suboptimal vacuum cup positions were related to failed VE but not to SGH and other vacuum-related birth trauma. While optimal flexed median cup positions should be most desirable mechanically to effect delivery, such a position does not guarantee prevention of SGH.

Retinodural haemorrhage of infancy, abusive head trauma, shaken baby syndrome: The continuing quest for evidence.

The shaken baby syndrome was originally proposed in the 1970s without any formal scientific basis. Once data generated by scientific research was available, the hypothesis became controversial. There developed essentially two sides in the debate. One side claimed that the clinical triad of subdural haemorrhage, retinal haemorrhage, and encephalopathy, or its components, is evidence that an infant has been shaken. The other side stated this is not a scientifically valid proposal and that alternative causes, such as low falls and natural diseases, should be considered. The controversy continues, but the contours have shifted. During the last 15 years, research has shown that the triad is not sufficient to infer shaking or abuse and the shaking hypothesis does not meet the standards of evidence-based medicine. This raises the issue of whether it is fit for either clinical practice or for the courtroom; evidence presented to the courts must be unassailable. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: There is insufficient scientific evidence to assume that an infant with the triad of subdural haemorrhage (SDH), retinal haemorrhage, and encephalopathy must have been shaken. Biomechanical and animal studies have failed to support the hypothesis that shaking can cause SDH and retinal haemorrhage. Patterns of retinal haemorrhage cannot distinguish abuse. Retinal haemorrhages are commonly associated with extracerebral fluid collections (including SDH) but not with shaking. Infants can develop SDH, retinal haemorrhage, and encephalopathy from natural diseases and falls as low as 1 foot. The shaking hypothesis and the literature on which it depends do not meet the standards of evidence-based medicine.

Efficacy of Child Abuse Evaluations for Infants With Possible Subdural Hemorrhage Identified on Cranial Ultrasound Completed for Macrocephaly.

Abusive head trauma (AHT) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality for infants. Determining when to pursue a complete physical abuse evaluation can be difficult, especially for nonspecific findings or when a child appears clinically well. This retrospective study of 7 cases sought to describe the presentation, evaluation, and diagnoses for infants with abnormal subdural collections identified on cranial ultrasound for macrocephaly, and to determine how frequently AHT is diagnosed. The results of this study showed that while each patient presented due to asymptomatic macrocephaly, the extent of the workup varied greatly. In addition, no infants had suspicious injuries for abuse during the initial evaluation or the year following. In summary, among the 7 patients seen for asymptomatic macrocephaly with possible subdural hemorrhage, there were very inconsistent child abuse workups. There needs to be a standardized clinical guideline for this specific patient population involving a child abuse pediatric evaluation.

Temporal lobe uncal herniation with contralateral superior cerebellar artery infarct.

Herniation of the temporal lobe uncus typically leads to the compression of the ipsilateral oculomotor nerve, resulting in ipsilateral mydriasis, as well as compression of the ipsilateral posterior cerebral artery, leading to infarction in the posterior inferior temporal lobe and medial occipital cortex. In this report, we present the case of a 45-year-old man with a large left subdural hematoma. At autopsy, we observed left cingulate and uncal herniations, along with the characteristic lesions of Kernohan notch phenomenon due to compression of the contralateral cerebral peduncle. Additionally, a hemorrhagic infarct was identified in the right cerebellar hemisphere in the distribution of the superior cerebellar artery (SCA). This case provides the first autopsy report of uncal herniation with contralateral SCA infarct, an extremely rare condition. Importantly, this vascular complication may often go unnoticed in patients with Kernohan notch phenomenon although it may carry a grave clinical prognosis.